Uplift, Empire, and Double Consciousness

Act I: Uplift

“Cuba” was a performance of racial uplift in two ways. First, it was a literal, theatrical performace that raised funds for the American Law Enforcement League of Minnesota, an organization that existed for the benefit of African Americans. But it was also a genteel performance of the St. Paul black community, which was embodied not only in the singing and acting on stage, but by the spectacle of the whole event and its coverage in the black press.

The coverage (49) that “Cuba” received in The Appeal frames the production as an example of how African Americans were proving themselves capable of great cultural endeavors, worthy of high white society:

“The largest enterprise yet undertaken by our citizens”

“The honorary patronesses are white ladies of the highest social standing.”

“The active patronesses are well known representatives of the Afro-American ladies of the Twin Cities.”

“The drama is unique and picturesque in its setting, and is interspersed with solo and chorus music of the highest order. The talent among us is a revelation to ourselves, as it is hoped it will be to others. In a general way, we have known it all along; but in a special way it is most inspiring to know and feel that we can not only sing and act, but can do so with art and grace. We prophesy that this production will be the most brilliant event that has ever occurred in St. Paul and Minneapolis. Its success will be one more proof that we are widening the borders of legitimate effort, and have included the stage and concert among our serious ambitions.”

The Appeal frames “Cuba” as the largest production ever attempted by the St. Paul black community, and that it is sponsored by white and black women of high society. Next, the content of the production—the acting and singing—is cited as an example of racial progress. The black citizens of St. Paul can sing and act “with art and grace,” and this shows how they “are widening their borders of legitimate effort” to include these forms of European upper class art. The message is clear: “Cuba” is proof that the race has been uplifted.

The review of “Cuba,” published on November 12, also frames it as an example of racial progress. The review raves about the whole production in great detail, from its songs to the scenery and props. However the most important section of the review comes right at the beginning:

“If the American Law Enforcement League of Minnesota should cease to exist today, it would not have lived in vain. It was the cause which produced “Cuba,” and anything which can bring together such audiences as were present last week in Minneapolis and the most magnificent audience which greeted it on its production at the Metropolitan opera house last Thursday evening to witness a performance of the character of the one referred to given entirely by Afro-Americans, has done good work.”

The Appeal states here that even if the American League disappeared, it would have still fulfilled its purpose of racial uplift by bringing together “Cuba,” regardless of any real material or legal gains it might produce for black people. The genteel performance was enough.

The coverage “Cuba” receives in The Appeal is part of the performance of racial uplift. “Cuba” is framed as proof that African Americans are improving their talents, are capable of great cultural endeavors, and have gained the acceptance of high society whites. “Cuba” is a genteel performance both in its theatrics and in the high society spectacle it produced.

Act II: Empire

“Cuba” is also a performance of American empire. As we have seen before, US imperialism was a difficult sphere for African Americans to navigate; on the one hand racism was used to justify the annexation of foreign lands, while on the other the military provided a space for American blacks to prove their patriotism and gain respect as American citizens. “Cuba” performs a peculiar and ambiguous imperial project; it denies Cubans agency in their independence, justifying their subjugation by the US, but frames African Americans as heroes of imperial expansion.

Empire needs to be justified, and denying the agency of imperial subjects—those who are conquered—serves this end. It strips the subjects of their ability to control their own destiny, justifying an empire in controlling it for them. This was a common theme in the American press during the Spanish-American War; the US military was glorified while the Cubans (who had actually been fighting for independence since 1895) were barely mentioned (50). “Cuba” is complicit with this. The first act “America,” begins with “messengers of freedom” from the US travelling to Spain to plead for Cuba’s freedom. Here, the US seeks to deliver freedom to Cuba; Cubans themselves are passive. In the second act “Home Life in Cuba” General Maceo (played by Fredrick McGhee) apologizes for the wrongs of his people. In truth, Maceo had been fighting for Cuban independence since 1895, yet in “Cuba” this is ignored and the General appears only as an apologist. In act three, “Humanity,” the Battle of Santiago is enacted and American soldiers and nurses are glorified, while the Cuban soldiers are nowhere to be seen.

The mainstream white American press would also deny agency to US blacks serving in the War, and Theodore Roosevelt even slandered them as lazy and cowardly (51). The US military clearly did not provide much space for blacks to claim citizenship, but “Cuba” offered a counternarrative that restored their dignity (and by extension their citizenship). The achievements of the black 9th and 10th Cavalry were highlighted, and Fredrick McGhee delivered a speech in which he claimed that there was “no colorline on San Juan Hill.” “Cuba” frames blacks as active, heroic agents fighting as equals among white troops.

“Cuba” thus presents an ambiguous American empire. The empire is justified through anti-black racism against Cuban blacks, who must be saved by American liberators, but American empire in "Cuba" also actively includes black Americans as powerful agents.

Act III: Double Consciousness

The politics of racial uplift and imperialism in “Cuba” are demonstrative of DuBoisian double consciousness; of being conscious both of oneself (as an African American) and of how one is perceived by a dominant other (white Americans).

The racial uplift in “Cuba” is characterized by genteel performance; the pageant is a spectacle of talent and grace that signifies upper/middle class status to the (white) world. As we have seen before, genteel performance is indicative of double consciousness. The people involved with “Cuba” were conscious both as African Americans striving for racial uplift, and as African Americans seeking the approval of a judgmental white world. They wanted to improve the lives of all black people, but set about this task with a spectacle of genteel performance that implicitly labeled poor blacks as unworthy of uplift. Here we see the contradiction in racial uplift that double consciousness creates.

“Cuba” also exhibits a form of imperial double consciousness. The pageant displays Cubans as oppressed people but only allows them to be liberated through US imperialism, itself an agent of oppression around the world. “Cuba” thus identifies with both colonial subjects and imperial masters. “Cuba” displays an African American consciousness of oppression as experienced by Cubans, but this solidarity can only be demonstrated in a method that pleases a judgmental American white world that celebrates itself as an expanding world power.

“Cuba” is a unique demonstration of double consciousness, that shows how black people navigated the complex and daunting task of improving their condition. It allowed this group of St. Paulites to express their solidarity with other black Americans and Cubans, but through a spectacle that pleased white elites. However, through this performance, black Cubans and African Americans who did not conform with the norms of genteel performance were implicitly denied full humanity.